Applied Geography Definition Need and Significance
Applied Geography
M. Pacione , in International Encyclopedia of Human Geography, 2009
The Relationship between Pure and Applied Research
Applied research in any discipline is best understood in contrast with basic, or pure, research. For some commentators basic research in geography aims to develop new theory and methods that help explain the processes through which the spatial organization of physical or human environments evolves. In contrast, applied research uses existing geographic theory or techniques to understand and solve specific empirical problems.
While this distinction is useful at a general level it overplays the notion of a dichotomy between pure and applied geography, which are more correctly seen as two sides of the same coin. There is, in fact, a dialectic relationship between the two. Applied geography uses the principles and methods of pure geography but is different in that it analyzes and evaluates real-world action and planning and seeks to implement and manipulate environmental and spatial realities. In the process, it contributes to, as well as utilizes, general geography through the revelation of new relationships. The conjuncture between pure and applied research is illustrated clearly in geomorphology where, for example, attempts to address problems of shoreline management have contributed to theories of beach transport, the difficulties of road construction in the arctic have informed theories of permafrost behavior, while problems encountered in tunneling have aided the development of subsidence theory. Applied research provides the opportunity to use theories and methods in the ultimate proving ground of the real world, as well as enabling researchers to contribute to the resolution of real-world problems. More generally, theory is essential in applied geography at two levels. First, it provides the framework for asking questions about the substantive relationships embodied in a problem (e.g., here a model of a hydrological catchment illuminates the potential effects of a proposed flood prevention scheme). Second, social theory provides a normative standard against which current and future social conditions may be judged in terms of defined moral goals (which may address issues such as whether a minimum wage and basic standard of living should be a legal entitlement in advanced capitalist societies).
There is little merit in pursuing a false dichotomy between pure and applied research. A more useful distinction is that which recognizes the different levels of involvement of researchers at each stage of the research and specifically the greater engagement of applied geographers in the 'downstream' or postanalysis stages. The applied researcher has a greater interest than the pure researcher in taking the investigation beyond analysis into the realms of application of results and monitoring the effects of proposed strategies. Researcher participation in the implementation stage may range from recommendations in scholarly publications or contracted reports (a route favored by most academic applied geographers, though not exclusively) to active involvement in implementation (more usually by applied geographers employed outside academia). Between these positions lie a variety of degrees of engagement, including acting as expert witnesses at public enquiries, dissemination of research findings via the media, field involvement in, for example, landscape conservation projects, and monitoring the effects of policies and strategies enacted by governmental and private sector agencies.
The balance between pure and applied research within a discipline varies over time in relation to the prevailing sociopolitical environment. When external pressures are at their greatest disciplines will tend to emphasize their problem-solving capacity while during periods of national economic expansion 'more academic' activity may be pursued in comfort. Some have equated these cycles with the long waves of the world economy, and identified three periods in which applied geography was in the ascendancy (in the late nineteenth century, inter-war era, and mid-1980s), separated by two periods of pure geography (in the early twentieth century, and during the post-1945 economic boom) (Table 1).
Table 1. Cycles of pure and applied geography
| First applied period (late nineteenth century) | Geography created as an applied discipline to serve the political, military, and commercial interests of the state. |
| First pure period (early twentieth century) | Based around the holistic philosophy encompassing both physical and human phenomena and focused on the core concept of the region and regional synthesis. |
| Second applied period (inter-war) | A period of war, followed by depression, and war again demanded geography demonstrate its usefulness in fields such as land-use planning. |
| Second pure period (post-1945 boom) | Rejection of ideographic regionalism replaced by spatial science and the quantitative revolution; demise of holistic approach and emergency of subfields within the discipline. |
| Third applied period (mid-1980s) | Extension of the concept of useful research into new areas of concern relating to social, economic, and environmental problems; applied geographers working both in academic and in public and private sectors. Applied geography as an approach rather than a subfield crosscuts the artificial boundary between physical and human geography and emphasizes the dialectic relationship between pure and applied research. Acknowledgement of the role of human agency and values in research and environmental change, and the need for a pluralist view of science. |
| Third pure period (?) | Characteristics unknown but speculatively – a return to a more holistic philosophy reflecting the growing importance of environmental issues and the combinatory perspective of applied geography. |
From Pacione, M. (1999). Applied Geography: Principles and Practice. London: Routledge.
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Trophic Index and Efficiency☆
Timur Pavluk , Abraham bij de Vaate , in Encyclopedia of Ecology (Second Edition), 2017
Summary
Applied research of aquatic ecosystems involves enormous amount of parameters to give a detailed description of ecological processes and to verify the degree of anthropogenic interference that takes place. To transform parameters studied into a clear and integrated form indices are used of which the group of trophic indices is the most popular. Two groups of the indices are distinguished: trophic indices based on the primary production potential of ecosystems, and the indices based on the structure of energy and substance transferring between trophic levels of aquatic inhabitants. Trophic indices allow one to make comparative studies between very different aquatic ecosystems, even those that are located in different continents with completely different species compositions.
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Multicarrier energy systems
Soheil Derafshi Beigvand , ... Massimo La Scala , in Handbook of Energy Economics and Policy, 2021
5 Conclusions
In applied research, future trends and needs of the electrical energy system has been largely addressed and pursued by many researchers. However, future energy systems call for the introduction of multicarrier energy networks in order to reach more efficiency (thermodynamic and economical), reliability, resilience, flexibility, capacity optimisation and storage capabilities. Nowadays, energy engineers and economists are developing new analysis tools to integrate different types of energy grids. Due to the existence of two technologically mature grids, namely electricity and natural gas systems, in many countries, attention was drawn for a more deep integration and exploitation of their complementary characteristics. In addition, electricity, gas and liquid energy carriers are attractive because of their complementary characteristics in storing and transporting energy on long distances and the strategic need to differentiate energy carriers. Consequently, in the next years, it is not expected that the electricity and gas grids will substantially change but more connections and interactions between them are fostered to provide an optimal operation of the energy transfer.
The important concept of energy hub and integrated networks of energy hubs has been introduced in the literature. Energy hub idea makes possible locally a flexible combination of several carriers through various converters and keeps the potential for different improvements in the operation of multicarrier energy networks. Supply availability and security can be increased, operational cost and system losses can be reduced and the overall efficiency and sustainability can be improved. Moreover, some properties of carriers can be combined in a beneficial way. For instance, electrical power can easily be controlled and transmitted on long distances with comparably low losses, gas and liquid fuels can be easily stored, the waste heat produced by industry sector can be injected into heating network resulting in lower consumption from other heat sources, etc. An optimal synergy of different energy carriers through energy hubs can be obtained through the optimisation of energy sources inside each hub and energy flows among infrastructures connecting a grid of energy hubs.
The assumption of the implementation of multicarrier energy systems and integrated management of multiple energy systems through integrated OPF tools produces synergy effects among different carriers, which result in the reduction of operation cost and electrical power losses as well as the enhancement of the overall system efficiency, security and availability of supply. A quantitative measure of these enhancements is shown through realistic examples reported in Appendix I.
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Applications for Societal Benefits
M.L. Miller , ... S.J. Walsh , in Comprehensive Remote Sensing, 2018
9.11.8 Using Remote Sensing and the HANS Framework to Understand PDSs
For applied research of any kind to be truly useful, it must be taken into account the client. Earlier, we have pointed out good governance concerns not only the goals and behaviors of executive agencies in government but also those of other authorities and influential entities and leaders in civil society. Accordingly, research to support good governance must be designed to be of practical value to multiple stakeholders. With this commitment, research on PDSs is designed for two sets of clients: those who are prominent in shaping policies and projects in protected areas and those who are leaders in determining the future of policies and projects in gateway regions. The HANS framework is helpful in designing governance-focused research. In its touristic application, the framework is adjusted in two ways. First, the three-component subsystem of human–artifactual–natural components is employed to encompass the two elements of a PDS: the protected area and gateway region. Second, the overarching objective of research concerns the societal benefits of tourism as a legitimate activity within protected areas and toward supporting the conservation of specific protected areas.
Miller et al. (2014) have illustrated how HANS research questions can be categorized according to how they address conditions and dynamics within and between the human–artifactual–natural components and also relationships between the components and global drivers. Using the same categories, we list research topics and remote-sensing technologies that might usefully inform the good governance of a PDS ( Table 5 ). The topics we identify as examples largely focus on topics that data could be accessed remotely and may or may not be particularly amenable to GIS analysis and presentation.
Table 5. Examples of remote sensing in the context of the HANS framework to inform the governance of PDSs
| HANS component and topics | Remote sensing tools |
|---|---|
| Human component dynamics (internal) | |
| Satellite/aerial photography imagery with baseline measures: natural, human socioeconomic, and artifactual a , b |
| Smartphone/satellite/aerial photography imagery with baseline measures (e.g., market segment numbers in geographic locations) a , b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change b |
| Satellite/aerial photography/drone imagery of boat types for degree of overlap (spatial and temporal) in site use, a measure of potential conflict a , b |
| Drone imagery of vehicle type presence in totally protected zones b , c |
| Drone imagery of tourist presence and length of stay in the proximity of interpretive signage a , b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change a , b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change a , b |
| Artifactual component dynamics (internal) | |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change a , b |
| GIS only, using spatial demographics over time to identify change a , b |
| Natural component dynamics (internal) | |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used with increasing use of drones for small-scale studies b , d |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used with increasing use of drones for small-scale studies b , d |
| Human–natural dynamics (cross component interaction) | |
| Smartphone with some use of drone aerial photography b , c |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) for temporal studies b , d |
| Human–artifactual dynamics (cross component interaction) | |
| Smartphone, drone aerial photography for temporal studies a , b |
| Smartphone, drone aerial photography for safety "hot-spot" temporal studies a , b |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used with potential use of drones for small scale studies a , b |
| GoPro cameras, apps, affordable GPS technology, and social media a , b |
| Natural–artifactual dynamics (cross component interaction) | |
| Drones, aerial photography, smartphones, and tagged species (where they go and stay) a , b |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery), with potential use of drones and smartphones by citizens b , d |
| Global driver dynamics (cross component interaction) | |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used, with potential use of drones for small-scale studies b , d |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used, with potential use of drones for small-scale studies b , d |
| Multiple RS tools (e.g., satellite and aerial photography imagery) used, with potential use of drones for small-scale studies b , d |
| GIS dependent, demographics (social, economic) and temporal and spatial changes in the characteristics of HANS within a PDS a , b |
| GIS dependent, demographics (social and economic) and temporal and spatial changes in the characteristics of HANS within a PDS a , b |
- a
- Largely unused in PDS-related studies.
- b
- GIS linked.
- c
- Some used in PDS-related studies.
- d
- Commonly used in PDS-related studies.
After Miller et al. (2014).
The remote-sensing tools listed in Table 5 are those that, in our estimation, seem to be logistically and financially practical for the study of touristic issues with which they are associated. Some remote-sensing technologies in the table have a solid history of application in PDS-related studies, whereas others are new to the scene. Multiple RS tools, for example, have been used in the study of natural component dynamics (population and ecosystem dynamics), human–natural dynamics (species/ecosystem health), human–artifactual dynamics (social carrying capacity), natural–artifactual dynamics (environmental quality), and in global driver dynamics (biodiversity, climate change, and sea-level rise). Particularly, time-series imagery is commonly used to assess temporal variations in land use/land cover (from–to change detections) and trajectories of change across a landscape ( Table 5 ).
Smartphone and drone aerial photography have a shorter application record in PDS-related studies ( Table 5 ), but innovations in these technologies have great promise for studies of human component dynamics (specialized tourism), human–natural dynamics (tourist motivation), human–artifactual dynamics (tourist attractions and tourist safety and risk management), and natural–artifactual dynamics (habitat boundaries). There are also opportunities for the fusion of multiple remotely sensed data forms that together offer the collection of fine- and coarse-grained information to integrate local to regional contexts, particularly associated with protected spaces and the gateway regions.
We see an area of particular promise in the linking of remotely sensed data collected by individuals (e.g., touristic photos recording the presence/abundance/movement of iconic species) with broader-scale data for validation and, possibly, mining and modeling the pixels of the latter. As a potential incentive for members of the general public to engage in remote-sensing tourism/citizen science, provisions could be made for the immediate sharing of results with participants. Consider, for example, PDS tourists in the field who, as the human element of a remote sensor/platform assemblage, "collect" and transfer geospatial data on what they see to analysts/investigators at a distance. These tourists can become real-time research clients (as well as data collectors) whose touristic experiences are enhanced as the analysts/investigators communicate findings (e.g., information on how often a particular site is frequented by various categories of tourists) back to them. Remote sensor/platforms with human components are interesting because humans have discretionary abilities influencing sensing that are not shared by other animals or platforms that are coupled with sensors. We note, however, that collaborative arrangements raise ethical issues that need to be considered in the research development, data analysis, and publication phases of research projects.
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Mycorrhizas in managed environments: forest production, interactions with other microorganisms and pollutants
Sally E Smith , David J Read , in Mycorrhizal Symbiosis (Second Edition), 2002
The Use of Ectomycorrhizal Inoculation Programmes to Produce Edible Fungi
While emphasis in applied research on ectomycorrhizas has so far concentrated on improvement of tree production, there is an increasing awareness of the potential to exploit the commercial value of the fruit bodies produced by ectomycorrhizal fungi. At present, a small number of mycorrhizal species ( Table 17.2) are prized for their gastronomic quality and are hence of high value. They are collected mostly from natural stands and constitute only a small fraction of the total global production of edible fungi (Fig. 17.1), most of which are saprophytes grown under controlled conditions. In order to increase supply of mycorrhizal fruit bodies, the current demands for which far outstrip supply, numerous commercial organizations are involved in planting trees which have been pre-colonized by inoculation with appropriate fungi. Particular emphasis has been placed on truffles (Tuber spp.) because of their extremely high economic value, the most important of these being the black truffle, T. melanosporum. Techniques for the germination of the ascospores of this fungus and for the aseptic production of mycorrhizas by a number of Tuber spp. were pioneered in France (Grente et al., 1972; Chevalier and Desmas, 1975; Chevalier and Grente, 1978) and Italy (Palenzona, 1969; Fontana and Bonfante-Fasolo, 1971). T. melanosporum has a broad host range and can be successfully grown on calcareous soils with the hardwood genera Corylus, Quercus, Carpinus and Castanea, as well as softwoods such as Pinus. Commercial production of colonized seedlings, particularly of Quercus and Corylus, now takes place in a number of centres in both the northern and southern hemispheres. In France alone about 160000 plants colonized by T. melanosporum are produced annually, mostly by Agri-Truffe of St Maixant; some are exported to the USA (Hall et al., 1994). On a smaller scale, colonized plants are being produced in New Zealand, by the New Zealand Institute for Crop and Food Research, in a programme pioneered by Hall, involving the introduction of both fungus and plant as exotic species. Truffieres have been established on both North and South Islands, usually as mixed plantings of Quercus and Corylus on potentially favourable sites, at some distance from any other ectomycorrhizal communities to reduce competition between pre-existing and introduced fungi. Truffles were collected from the introduced, inoculated plants within 5 years of establishment of a truffiere at Gisbourne, New Zealand (Hall et al., 1994). Since in other parts of the world (e.g. Europe and California) the first truffles are usually produced only after 7–10 years, the prospects for production of truffles in New Zealand and development of an export industry appear bright.
Table 17.2. Some high-priced mycorrhizal truffle and edible mushrooms
| Botanical name | Common names | Markets | Approximate recent prices (£ kg− 1) |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tuber melanosporum Vitt | Périgord black truffle truffe due Périgord (Fr) tartufo nero prégiato (It) schwarze Truffel (G) | Worldwide | Fresh 550 (wholesale, London) Fresh 3250 (retail, London) Fresh 100–430 (picker, France) Bottled 860–1800 (retail, London) Canned 500 (wholesale, Cahors) |
| Tuber magnatum Pico | Italian white truffle truffe d'Alba tartufo bianco pregiato weisse Truffel | Worldwide | Bottled 1000 (retail, London) Fresh 800 (wholesale, Bologna) |
| Boletus edulis Bull. ex Fr. | cep, penny bun cépe de Bordeaux porcino steinpilz | Europe North America | Fresh 45 (retail, Hamburg) Fresh 10 (retail, Bologna) Dried 60 (retail, Zurich) |
| Cantharellus cibarius Fr. | chanterelle girolle gallinaccio pfifferlinge | Europe North America | Fresh 10 (retail, Hannover) |
| Tricholoma matsutake (S. Ito et lmai) Sing. | matsutake | Japan | 72–720 (wholesale, domestic produce) 75 (wholesale, China) 72 (wholesale, South Korea) 36 (wholesale, from North Korea) |
Figure 17.1. The contribution of mycorrhizal fungi to the approximate world production of edible mushrooms in 1991. Values are tonnes × 1000.
From Hall et al. (1994), with permission. Copyright © 1994Despite advances in science and technology which provide the prospect of large-scale production of a number of edible mycorrhizal fungi, the commercial success of any venture is not assured. To a large extent the value of the commodities (especially of truffles) is based upon its limited availability, so that prices will certainly drop if large-scale production is achieved. However, especially in crops that can be used for timber, harvesting of edible fruit bodies could be an additional source of revenue or food, especially in developing countries. The large-scale establishment of eucalypt plantations in China, using planting stock preinoculated with edible fungi, has considerable potential to provide an important dietary supplement (Dell and Malajczuk, personal communication).
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The Specificities of Geomorphological Heritage
Paola Coratza , Fabien Hobléa , in Geoheritage, 2018
5.4 Heritage Geomorphology: A New Branch of the Geomorphological Sciences?
Considering geomorphological objects under the geoheritage perspective leads to a new and/or another geomorphology practice. At the time when geomorphology becomes highly specialised, the geomorphologist dealing with geomorphosites must be polyvalent. Aiming to characterise the scientific values of any kind of geomorphosite, he must be able to mobilise the whole spectrum of geomorphological knowledge. Because geomorphosites present also additional values related to aesthetics, human history and culture, he must also be open to numerous other issues related to human and cultural geography. This opening is for instance at the basis of the concept of 'cultural geomorphology' (Panizza and Piacente, 2003/2014, 2009; Reynard and Giusti, 2018). Moreover, the geomorphologist can also be involved in the management of the geomorphological heritage, according to the territorial context. This issue is related to territorial geography. Also often involved in the interpretation of the geomorphosites, the geomorphologist working on geoheritage should master the knowledge transfer protocols and the mediation know-how. All these issues build the basement, maybe not of a new discipline, but of a new branch of geomorphology – returning into the fold of geography after being increasingly closer to geology – that we could call 'heritage geomorphology' (including cultural geomorphology).
Balancing between fundamental and applied research, the key-issues of 'heritage geomorphology' are:
- 1.
-
The characterisation and documentation of geomorphological heritage. Regarding documentation of geomorphosites, geomorphologists have to mobilise the usual methods, the fundamental knowledge and know-how on geomorphology. But they also have to face the challenge of the geomorphodiversity (Panizza, 2009): working on geomorphosites implies being able to apprehend all the geomorphotypes in all the geomorphological contexts, e.g., volcanic, karstic, fluvial, glacial, periglacial, coastal, mass movements, etc. This means a need for geomorphologists with a profile equivalent to the general practitioners in medicine, polyvalent and connected with a network of specialists ready to conduct advanced investigations related to their specialty (coastal or fluvial geomorphology, geoarchaeology, karstology, etc.) and specific analyses (dating, 3D modelling, geochemistry, etc.). Some heritage geomorphologists also cross their initial expertise with the geoheritage topic, working for instance on erosive processes that affect active (Bollati et al., 2016a), volcanic (Joyce, 2009) or karst (Hobléa, 2009) geomorphosites.
The characterization of geomorphosites is primarily based on existent bibliography related to the site; some gaps or specific needs can also lead to the production of new knowledge and data about geomorphosites (Bollati et al., 2016a; Ravanel et al., 2015).
- 2.
-
The study of relationships with other issues and topics. The main issues to which geomorphological heritage can be related and used as an indicator and educative support are: climate change (Ravanel et al., 2015), landscape evolution and management (Reynard, 2005, 2009b), natural hazards and risks (Alcántara-Ayala, 2009; Smith et al., 2011), human/nature and nature–culture diachronic relationships (Delannoy et al., 2013; Reynard, 2015), geodiversity (Serrano and Ruiz-Flaño, 2009) and its relation with biodiversity, heritage making, i.e., the process that makes a geological object a territory's element of heritage (Cayla et al., 2016; Portal, 2013; Reynard et al., 2011).
This kind of study reveals the necessary link between heritage geomorphology and specialised geomorphological branches like geoarchaeology, geomorphological hazards, process geomorphology, climatic geomorphology, or the new 'social geomorphology' promoted by Delannoy et al. (2013).
In parallel, the movement towards a multidisciplinary and integrated approach of geomorphological heritage has to be improved with the involvement and contribution of researchers in humanities and social/political sciences, as well as economists and experts in communication sciences. The objective is to examine geomorphological heritage and geomorphosites as a territorial and heritage resource support for sustainable development (e.g., within geoparks), especially through geotourism and education or citizen empowerment to face the socioenvironmental challenges in a changing world.
- 3.
-
The methods for the inventory, selection, assessment and mapping of geomorphosites. The inventory of geomorphological heritage aims to establish a list of remarkable geomorphological sites (forms and processes) with a certain value. The inventory implies the assessment of the value, leading to a ranking and a selection of sites. Numerous geomorphologists tried to conceive rigorous and efficient methods for the inventory, assessment and selection of geomorphosites (e.g., Pereira et al., 2007; Pereira and Pereira, 2010; Sellier, 2016; Reynard et al., 2016). However, there is presently no consensus on a unified, unique and universal method (Brilha, 2016, 2018; Reynard, 2009c).
Mapping geomorphosites is also a major concern in heritage geomorphology, with the production of a new type of maps, often derived but rather different from the classical geomorphological maps (Carton et al., 2005; Coratza and Regolini-Bissig, 2009).
- 4.
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The management of geomorphological heritage. This concerns, on the one hand, a cluster of topics about protection, conservation and vulnerability (Prosser et al., 2010; Ravanel et al., 2015; Smith et al., 2011) and on the other hand, a cluster concerning the promotion and interpretation of geomorphological heritage, especially related to geotourism (Pica et al., 2013) and geoeducation (Bollati et al., 2012, 2016b; Martin, 2010; Reynard and Coratza, 2016).
Heritage geomorphology is also related to the research and development of tools applied to a better understanding of this specific kind of heritage (Martin, 2014), paradoxically spectacular but often 'nonvisible' to the public (Cayla et al., 2012; Giusti, 2012; Hobléa et al., 2014; Tooth, 2009). Heritage geomorphology is also concerned with the relationships between geomorphological knowledge and territorial management and with the use of geomorphosites, especially in protected areas (Hobléa et al., 2013) and in contexts dedicated to the conservation and promotion of the geomorphological heritage, such as World Heritage sites (Migoń, 2009) or geoparks (Zouros, 2009).
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Cancer Economics
Thomas N. Chirikos , in International Encyclopedia of Public Health (Second Edition), 2017
Abstract
Cancer economics is a nascent field of applied research focusing on the resource implications of all forms of malignant disease. This article surveys three key elements of the field: analyses of the direct costs of health-care services that detect and treat cancer; studies of indirect costs, the value of time losses in market and home work by patients and their families after the disease is diagnosed; and economic appraisals or cost-effectiveness analyses of alternative cancer interventions. Information yielded by research in cancer economics is needed by policy makers to judge whether cancer resources are being utilized efficiently.
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Putting it all together: Geophysical data integration
Kenneth L. Kvamme , ... Jeremy G. Menzer , in Innovation in Near-Surface Geophysics, 2019
6.3.2 Challenges to numerical/statistical integrations
Ground-based geophysical applications face numerous challenges to their quantitative integration at the pixel level. One problem is that of divergent spatial formats and resolutions. Some geophysical data might yield high spatial sampling densities (e.g., 200 m− 2 traces for GPR) and others very low (e.g., 1 m− 2 for ER), while aerial imagery may vary enormously, thanks most recently to low-flying drones that can yield centimeter-level information [119]. Worse, data densities may not be uniformly distributed. MG data, for example, might offer 10 m− 1 samples along transects, with transects separated by 0.5 m, yielding rectangular pixels. Although divergent spatial resolutions can more easily be employed in graphic pixel-level fusions, arithmetic combinations of numerical data (e.g., by GIS calculators) typically require resampling of the data to a common spatial resolution. This could mean the downsampling of some data (equivalent to the throwing away of information) and the upsampling of others (through interpolation), neither of which is desirable, to an "average" resolution for the fusion. Greater challenges to numerical fusions at the pixel level arise from certain peculiar characteristics of geophysical data that may require additional preprocessing (pathways for numerical fusions are given in column five of Fig. 1).
Focus in distribution tails
Unlike most forms of quantitative information collected in applied research where interest typically lies in the central tendencies of bodies of data, in geophysics, interest generally centers on less frequent anomalous measurements in the tails of distributions. From a statistical standpoint, this means that analyses might be based on the rare and unusual using methods designed for the abundant and typical, leading to new research challenges that perhaps require alternative strategies.
Noise
Anomalous measurements are caused not only by features of anthropogenic origin, the typical targets of investigation, but also often by natural characteristics of the environment, including topographic, soil, or moisture changes, paleochannels, rodent burrows, isolated rocks, and tree roots, to cite a few. In addition, anomalies of cultural origin may be recent (e.g., pipelines, plow scarring, and metallic debris) or derive from periods not of interest (e.g., a recent historic settlement above a prehistoric one). If we liberally regard noise as anything that reduces the clarity of a desired signal [18] (p. 77), then anomalies stemming from natural sources, unwanted anthropogenic sources, electronic noise, and operator errors all contribute, and the task becomes one of the separating anomalies of interest from others. This undertaking can be extremely difficult when anomalies arising from targets of interest are in the minority and if they lack regular geometric expressions (as squares, circles, rectangles, and straight lines) or systematic spatial repetition characteristic of human constructions [35]. It is primarily because of noise that machine recognition algorithms prove so difficult and why subjective procedures for feature definition dominate in archaeological geophysics.
Other distributional issues
Magnetic data are bipolar, and their distributions are often extremely leptokurtic (long tails). GPR data tend to exhibit right skewness, while outliers are common in lateral ER surveys stemming from "data spikes" (extreme positive or negative outliers caused by poor probe contacts). MG and EMI data exhibit similar bipolar outliers stemming from the presence of metals. A single target represented by extreme positive and negative measurements (whether a hearth, ceramic pipe, or metallic object) may show a visual (and subjective) correlation between two data sets, but from a statistical standpoint, a low correlation coefficient will likely be realized, yielding a spurious result of little use to subsequent numerical integrations. Moreover, skewed data distributions and outliers in general negatively impact statistical indexes (e.g., means, variances, and correlations), introducing difficulties to the use of advanced multivariate methods, cornerstones of data integration methodologies.
Lack of correlation
Many physical properties of the subsurface represent independent or nearly independent dimensions. The magnetic susceptibility of soils may be unrelated to their conductivity, while the latter may be independent of changing dielectric properties, for example [29]. Although regions of high conductivity may disperse GPR energy and inhibit reflections, in low conductivity zones, GPR responses can be highly variable, meaning that anomalies seen in EC and GPR may not well correlate. Furthermore, the nature of data acquired by field instrumentation further contributes to reduced correlations. MS surveys reveal only the induced component of soil magnetism from very shallow sources, giving a result often different from MG. Because EC is the theoretical inverse of ER, strong correlations between them have been reported [120], but depending on coil separation and frequency in EC devices and interelectrode distances in ER surveys, unequal soil volumes may be evaluated resulting in poor relationships. Low correlations between prospection data sets bring to question the applicability of a suite of fusion methods common to satellite remote sensing, where highly related satellite bands are common and where fusion methods based on correlational structures, such as PCA, are standard practice [4]. In a large-area survey, Ernenwein [121] actually shows near-zero Pearsonian correlations between MG, MS, EC, and GPR data sets (max r = 0.156). A similar outcome is demonstrated between GPR, MG, and ER by Ogden et al. [122] with max r = 0.21. Kvamme [75] found much the same between five ground-based geophysical data sets; however, the low correlations were improved after transformations to reduce skewness and outliers such that 4 of 10 pairwise correlations reached approximately r = 0.3 with two others showing r > 0.2, still unimpressive but sufficient for PCA (see Case study 4 for further evidence).
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Transformation Techniques and Their Role in Crop Improvements: A Global Scenario of GM Crops
Abhishek Singh , ... Tatiana Minkina , in Policy Issues in Genetically Modified Crops, 2021
2.3.2 Chloroplast transformation
This method is highly useful for fundamental as well as applied research purposes where a foreign DNA can be inserted efficiently in the chloroplast genome. This method was first developed in a single-cell green algae Chlamydomonas reinhardtii in 1988 and later for tobacco. Presently, significant developments have been done for various species including higher plants (Adem et al., 2017). This method has advantages over traditional techniques such as integration of foreign gene by homologous recombination, high expression of proteins and maternal inheritance to limit the environmental risk management. Moreover higher expression of integrated DNA may result in unintended phenotype due to alterations in other pathway mechanisms and a major challenge.
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128207802000236
Developments in the Theory and Practice of Cybercartography
María del Carmen Reyes , ... Rodolfo Sánchez-Sandoval , in Modern Cartography Series, 2014
Abstract
A group of researchers in Mexico has developed over 60 applied research projects involving geomatics and society over the last 30 years. Geocybernetics and cybercartography have been key components in the successful insertion of intelligent geospatial solutions into societal environments. While the processes that drove those applied projects during the initial stages were essentially intuitive and empirical, the need to build a transdisciplinary theoretical backbone arose in order to further advance a truer understanding of geocybernetics. Therefore, an example of the processes was formalized through a conceptual modeling approach. A set of disciplines – such as territorial public policy, spatial analysis, geocybernetics, monitoring and pattern recognition – were intertwined through cognitive bridges. Taking these ideas as a point of departure, a method to build transdisciplinary frameworks in geocybernetics is explored, in which a transdisciplinary bridge is built using analogical reasoning.
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https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780444627131000039
Applied Geography Definition Need and Significance
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